Two Worlds in One Hand: A Role of the First Translation Agency in Dutch
East Indies, 1820-1825
by Rini
Rusyeni
Abstract
In order to win a war, one must know its enemy intimately. It goes in a
phrase by Tsun Zu as, “to know your enemy, you must become your enemy.” During
the periods of colonization, the Dutch authority in Dutch East Indies (now
Indonesia) had reflected such ideas through its language policy. This policy
established in 1818 and was intended to exercise the colonial authority by
utilizing the language.
The departement voor Inlandsche
Zaken was established in order to connect the domains of the indigenous and
colonial government in Dutch East Indies. By this, the agency was obliged to
study the language and culture in the archipelago. During the first five years
of the Inlandsche Zaken, it had
showed remarkable achievements in the unification of local vernaculars and the
standardization of Malay.
In this paper, I will provide several
analyses on translation of documents from the archives of the Inlandsche Zaken kept at the National Archives of the Republic of Indonesia. By
this, I will examine the differences between two similar documents-each
documents contains Dutch texts and they are translated into Malay (Dutch texts
in these two documents are similar but the Malay translations are different) produced
by the Dutch colonial government. My central research question is, to what
extent language was utilized as a tool of subordination towards the indigenous
society in Dutch East Indies? In addition, I try to demonstrate that the Inlandsche Zaken had played a
determinant role in bridging the two worlds in Dutch East Indies-namely the
colonial government and the indigenous societies, and also had used such
knowledge to exercise the colonial authority.
|
Keywords: language, colonial authority, culture, translation.
Abstrak
Untuk
memenangi perang, seseorang harus mengetahui musuhnya secara seksama. Tsun Zu
berkata, “Kenali musuhmu, dengan menjadi musuhmu.” Pada masa penjajahan,
penguasa Belanda di Netherlands East Indies (sekarang Indonesia) telah
mengimplementasikan gagasan tersebut melalui kebijakan bahasa yang mereka
keluarkan. Kebijakan ini dikeluarkan pada tahun 1818 dan bertujuan untuk menguasai
wilayah jajahan dengan menggunakan bahasa.
Lembaga Inlandsche Zaken didirikan dengan tujuan
untuk menghubungkan dua dunia yaitu masyarakat lokal dan pemerintah kolonial di
Dutch East Indies. Lembaga ini ditugaskan untuk mempelajari bahasa dan
budaya yang digunakan oleh masyarakat lokal di seluruh wilayah nusantara. Dalam
kurun waktu lima tahun pertama setelah berdiri, Inlandsche Zaken telah berhasil menyatukan berbagai bahasa lokal
yang berbeda dan membuat standar bahasa melayu.
Tulisan ini akan membahas tentang beberapa analisa penerjemahan dokumen
yang terdapat dalam koleksi arsip Inlandsche
Zaken yang tersimpan di Arsip
Nasional RI. Dalam analisa dokumen tersebut, penulis akan menelaah
beberapa perbedaan dan persamaan dari dua dokumen berbahasa Belanda-Melayu.
Kedua dokumen ini memiliki teks bahasa Belanda yang sama namun terjemahan
bahasa melayu yang berbeda. Pokok masalah utama dalam penelitian ini adalah
bagaimana bahasa digunakan sebagai alat untuk menguasai penduduk lokal di Dutch
East Indies? Selain itu juga, penelitian ini akan membahas peranan dominan Inlandsche Zaken dalam menghubungan dua
dunia, yaitu pemerintah Kolonial dan penduduk lokal dan juga peranan bahasa
untuk kekuasaan kolonial.
Kata kunci: bahasa, Kekuasaan kolonial, budaya, penerjemahan.
I.
Introduction
In August 1816, the Netherlands East Indies was officially handed over
by the British colonial government to the Dutch Colonial Government. New
administration meant new policies would be applied in this colony. Governor
General, Godert van der Capellen (1816-26) emphasized on developing new
approaches to maintain power in the colony, one of which was setting up local
governments and representatives which consisted of the nobles from indigenous
societies in governing the colony, instead of oppressing armed forces.[1]
In this policy, the government wanted to build up a new way of
communication with the locals. Through the slogan of “equality for all”- the Dutch considered themselves to be the partners
of the local rulers, by disseminating the knowledge of Malay, Javanese and
other indigenous languages among themselves so that the government officials
could easily build close relation and create collectivity with them in
governing the colony.[2]
The plan was implemented with the stipulation of the Regeringsregelement
(Government Regulation) in 1818 Article 100 that mentioned the obligation to extend the knowledge of Malay,
Javanese and other indigenous languages for the European residents,
further Indische government regulations exclusively for Dutch civil
servants.[3]
In addition, on March 25, 1819 (Stb. No.34), the
Governor General required all officials should be able to do their works without any help of the interpreters within one year after the
agreement. [4]
However, the policy turned out to fall short since it was
reported that the officers were still lack of knowledge on the indigenous
languages. Historische nota (1900) reported that “the Dutch government
in Java offers the strange and shameful spectacle of a nearly total lack of
indigenous languages and custom”. [5]
In order to overcome the language problem, the
Inlandsche zaken was established in 1820, a
year after the stipulation of the Government Decree. This was under coordination of the Algemeene
Secretarie (Secretariat General). This department had very wide range duties, such as to conduct correspondences and diplomatic relation
with the local rulers, to publish books and educational materials by using local languages.[6]
Certainly, it would not be an easy task, since the institution had to connect the
Dutch language with indigenous languages, such as
Malay and Javanese. The challenge did not only involve the complexity of the
local vernaculars, but also to the number of qualified translators who worked for the organization.
II. Translation in Colonial
Power
The practice of translations
has been done in various fields: not only for science and politics but also for
religious purposes since many years. It is an automatic and simple process: to
transfer a text from a source language to the target language in order to be
readable for public. [7]
In the early nineteen century, the process of
translation is conducted as simple as possible without adding any additional information which is not mentioned in the
source text. Friederich Schleirmacher (1813) stated that translators
translate the words written in texts given and act as a bridge to the readers
by keeping the original meaning in the translation text.[8]
The translator in this context would try to change the language literary and
bring the information in the source text to the translation text completely by
using the equivalent words. However, in translating a text, the equivalent
words are not the only output. The text which is translated is actually an act
of a transfer into a totally different world of culture.[9]
There is a possibility that this text cannot be
understood directly by the audiences if the transfer of culture is done
improperly. Boris Buden and Stefan Nowotny argued that translation is related
to the acts of moving or carrying across a culture from one place or position
to another or of changing from one state of something to another. [10]
Therefore, the task of the translator is to bring cultural
adjustments from one place to another or add specific terms that can define
his/her translation so that the text can be understood by the audiences.
There were several
variations of translations that have been made by the translators of Inlandsche Zaken depended on the use and
the audiences who read the translations. James T. Siegel (1997) argued that
translations can be made by repeating what other said through the translator’s
own code and words in order to show the real identity of the translator to the
readers; furthermore, translation is the act of transferring information and
messages as a vehicle of political and social authority of the translator.[11]
The analysis of the translation is done on same pattern of what has been
described by Siegel, whether the translators repeated the similar meaning in
the source texts or not in their translations, and whether the translator used
their translations as a vehicle of political and social authority or not. As it
claimed that, “translation was the central act of
European colonization and imperialism in America.”[12]
In other words, translation is often utilized as one
of the tools for colonialism. Did the Dutch colonial government through the Inlandsche Zaken use the
translations as a tool of colonialism? How they did that? These are the
questions that are going to be answered in this research.
The research on the Inlandsche zaken as a translation
agency in the colonial government has never been done by scholars before.
Consequently, many scholars and historians might not recognize the roles of the
agency. The research on the historiography of this agency could be useful in
order to study on how the Dutch colonial government used translations in the
Netherlands East Indies in the nineteen century. At the same time, the research is useful in adding the historiography
of the practice of legal translations in the colonial period since many of the
translation documents which were produced by the Inlandche Zaken were
decisions, decrees, acts and regulations. These documents might serve as the
first legal texts which were made by the colonial government to control the
citizens in the colony. Thus, the works that had been done by the Inlandsche zaken could be one of the
emerging factors that could be the pioneer of the legal texts in the
Netherlands East Indies. These texts might serve as the basis of the
composition of the first formal Indonesian legal texts since Indonesia was used
to be the Netherlands East Indies. As Busthanul Arifin argued that “almost all
Indonesian legal texts are translation documents from Dutch and are currently
from English texts”.[13]
III.
Previous Related Studies
The Inlandsche Zaken was an institution which had various tasks
and functions which related to the Indigenous societies in the nineteen
century. One of the tasks of the Inlandsche Zaken was as a religious
office. It had been discussed by Aqib Suminto in 1985. The book, which is titled
Politik Islam Hindia Belanda: Het Kantoor voor Inlandsche Zaken, describes
the organization as Kantor Agama (Religious Office) and it conducted
colonial Islamic policy in the Netherlands East Indies from period 1890 until
1940s. [14]
One of the most famous advisors that led the office was C. Snouck Hurgronje (1899-1906) who initiated the basic foundation of colonial
Islamic policy in Netherlands East Indies. [15]
This office is known to the general public because of Snouck Hurgronje’s
involvement. But long before Hurgronje’s era, this office held important roles
as the formal and important agency that dealt with translations of the local
vernaculars in the Netherlands East Indies.
Some studies on translation practices during the colonial era have been
conducted. However, none of these focuses on the role of the Inlandsche
zaken as the formal translation agency in the colonial period. In 2009, Ab. Massier wrote an article: Terjemahan Hukum Kolonial ke Dalam Bahasa Melayu dan Bahasa Indonesia:
Suatu Pengantar (Translation of Colonial Law to Malay and Bahasa Indonesia:
an Introduction). In his article, Massier describes the historiography of the
translations of the Colonial Laws and Regulations from the 18th to
20th Centuries. In his article, he mentioned the role of the Inlandsche
Zaken in its period of establishment but it did not completely focus on the
organization.
A Leiden historian, Cees Fasseur (1993) wrote a book on the Indologists
who worked in the Netherlands East Indies period 1825-1950. The book provides much information on the civil servants
and translators who worked for the Inlandsche Zaken from its early
period of establishment until the twentieth century and the story behind these
translators on how they became the translators and what kinds of efforts that
they did in order to be good translators. However, the book did not focus on
the historiography of the Inlandsche zaken and its roles as the
translation agency for colonial government.
In order to make a good research of the language
policy of the Inlandsche zaken, these
literatures will be a general foundation. The combination of these literatures
forms the framework for my research regarding the language policy of the Inlandsche
Zaken for period 1820-1847.
IV.
Methodology
This research focuses on the
language policy of the Inlandsche Zaken written in primary sources and literatures in the
nineteen century. The archives that are used in this research are taken from the
collection titled “Inlandsche zaken” period 1820-1840 which are kept at
the National Archives of the Republic of Indonesia (ANRI), Jakarta. The
collection of Inlandsche Zaken archives does not have an inventory yet
and the only finding aid that can be used for a research is a list of archives
which contains certain numbers. Each numbers contains brief information and
contents of what are kept in the archives. The numbers contains hundreds of
pages of archives with various topics, periods, and documents. Therefore, the
method of selecting the archives in this research is done by selecting these
numbers whether or not they relate to the period such as the period of
1820-1825
The selection of the translation texts is done in order to show how the
translators of the Inlandsche Zaken performed and conducted
translations. The selection of translations texts are analyzed in order to see
the various different methods of translations which were done by the
translators, and how did they connect the world of colonial government and the
world of the indigenous societies in the Netherlands East Indies in their
translations.
V. Establishing Standards on
the Indigenous Languages
Before the Inlandsche zaken was established, there were a number
of local vernaculars in the archipelago. In order to overcome the diversity and
differences in the local vernaculars and to create standards on translations of
these local vernaculars, the Departement voor Inlandsche zaken needed to
formalize standards on the indigenous languages. Thus, on October 30, 1820, the
Gouvernor General formed a commission consisted of C.P.J Elout (Secretary for
the Inlandsche zaken), Ds. D. Lenting, A.Koek, and C. van Angelbeek
(government translator for the Inlandsche zaken ) to compose a
dictionary of Malay-Dutch, and collect all prerequisite sources.[16]
From the research conducted by the
commission, a Malay-English dictionary and Malay Grammar Book which was
written by William Marsden (1812), Maleische Spraakkunst Boek (Malay
Grammar Book) by George Hendrik Werndly (1736) together with other manuscripts
and folklores in Malay, Javanese with Dutch translations, were considered
important sources to be the basis on creating standards on the use of
indigenous languages in translations. Based on the findings,
it showed that the government decided to
appoint C.P.J. Elout to translate William Marsden’s books, whereas C.
Van Angelbeek was
appointed to translate Werndly’s
book, and the rest of the commission members had to prepare for translations of
Dutch-Malay bible. [17]
Marsden’s books were translated since they were the first academic
research on Malay and gave a significant development on Malay language.[18]
C.P.J Elout translated the books into Dutch and published it in 1824. In the
meantime, as a secretary of the commission, C. Van Angelbeek was asked to translate
Werndly’s book which was published in 1823. Even though the book was almost
similar with Marsden’s Grammar Book of Malay, but it contained the first survey
of Malay literature in the eighteenth century; consequently, it would be an
important source and literature for translation activities. [19]
Apart from the tasks in the commission, the Inlandsche zaken was
also instructed to establish the standard Malay in the colony. The
standard Malay
for the government was the hoge
(high) Malay to be used in
the Riouw archipelago and its surroundings.
They only used Malay which was spoken by the nobles in
Riouw and surrounding areas. The execution of the task was the appointments of
its translator to be the government officer who conducted the tasks in certain
areas in Sumatra, such as Palembang, Lingga, and Riouw. In 1822, P.P. Roorda
van Eysinga was ordered to visit Palembang and its surrounding areas to learn the
Malay language from the local rulers and make a political contact with them as
well as to compose a dictionary of Dutch-Malay which was relevant to the Malay
in the areas where he conducted his studies.[20]
Eventually, a year after he finished his field
studies, in 1824, he published a Dutch-Malay dictionary. Unlike William
Marsden’s dictionary which was published in 1812, the dictionary was based on
the latest condition and the personal experience of Roorda in period of
1821-1823.
VI.
Analysis of Translation
In addition to establish
standards on indigenous languages, the main task of the Departement was
to translate decrees of the Governor General of the appointment of local rulers
to be indirect colonial government in various regions. The analysis of the
translation is done by analyzing a decree of the Governor General for the area
of Crawang. The region was selected because before the Inlandsche Zaken was
established, there were four different letters which were used in formal
translations, namely Malay with Malay/Jawi script, Javanese with Malay/Jawi
script, Malay with Javanese/Kawi script, and Javanese with Javanese/Kawi
script. The standard of the local vernacular for the administrative documents
on this region had changed after the organization was established; therefore,
the role of Departement voor Inlandsche Zaken seemed to be prominent in this
area.
The analysis of translation is done to see
the choice of the words or the phrases which were used by the translator and to
compare it with the context meaning
and situation. The analysis is also done to see whether the translator exerted colonial
power or not in the translation texts.
1. Decree of Governor General on 11 September 1820 for Crawang
Figure 1.a Decree of The Governor General for District
Crawang on 11th September
1820[21]
The text was issued by the government before the
establishment of the Departement voor
Inlandsche Zaken. The translation being created here is from Dutch into Malay text (Jawi). The decree
is analyzed in order to observe the quality of the translation before the
Departement was founded. The analysis is based on the translation of the phrase
“is benoemd en aangesteld”, “een ieder dien zulks aangan te kunnen van behoren”because these phrases represents
the position of the translator between the Governor Generaal and the audiences (the
appointee and the people in Crawang).
Table 1. Decree of Governor General for Crawang
District on 11th September
1820[22]
The phrase “is benoemd en aangesteld” (has
been appointed) is translated into “telah dijadikan”(has been become).
In literal meaning, the phrase was translated incorrectly because it has
different meaning into “telah dijadikan” (has been become). “Telah dijadikan”
comes from the verb “jadi” uses as idiomatically of a thing turning out
satisfactorily or leading to anything or being sufficient to affect the desired
object.[23]
The word “jadi” can be used only after one action occurs then it is used
in order to explain the effect after the action.
The phrase “een ieder dien zulks aangan te kunnen
van behoren” (whoever it may concern to acknowledge) is translated into “kita
memberi titah atas sekalian orang yang harus mengetahui”
(We give an order to all people who should
acknowledge). In this sense, the translator explained to the audience in the
translation that the Governor Generaal ordered to all Karawang people to
acknowledge the position of the appointee which I think it was a literal
translation of the phrase “een ieder dien zulks aangan te kunnen van
behoren”. The method of literal translation by using an explanation can be
done by a translator in order to make the readers understand the main
information being delivered. This technique is similar to what had been explained by Schleirmacher (1813) that
the translators only translated the words written in texts given from the
language in the source text to the target language in the translation text.
2. A Decree of Governor General on 23rd January 1821 for
Karawang District
The translation was made in the text was from Dutch to
Malay (Jawi script). Below in figure 3, we can see the Dutch text as the source
text.
Figure 2: A Dutch text of the Decree of the Governor General
on 23rd of January 1821[24]
In figure 3 below, we can see the translation text in Malay/Jawi script.
Figure 3: A text of Malay translation of the Decree of
the Governor General on 23rd January 1821[25]
If we observe carefully in the first sentence of the
text, there are words which were translated in different meaning: “is
benoemd aangesteld” was translated into “diberi nama dan
pangkat” (is given a name and position). The
passive phrase “is benoemd aangesteld” (appointed as) is translated into
passive phrase “diberi nama dan pangkat” (is given a name and position).
The phrase “diberi nama dan pangkat in literal meaning “is appointed as” since
the word “nama” and “pangkat” could not stand alone without the
verb “diberi” and this verb could not stand alone without an object, so
the choice of nouns “nama” and “pangkat” was done because it
fitted to represent “benoemd aangesteld”. In this sense, the translator
acted purely to bridge information between two languages. Hence, the meaning of
“nama” was appellation, reputation, whereas “pangkat” meant
grade, rank, dignity.[26]
The choice of words that the translator highlighted, namely, “diberi nama
and pangkat” can also be assumed that the translator intended to highlight
the appointed person that he was given a position as a figure with a rank,
reputation, dignity. He added the word “diberi” that he was the
government’s subordinate, without the word “diberi” the reader would
feel the position between the appointee in the colonial government was equal.
The word “pangkat” in Malay society used to have meaning of a high
position which not all people could sit on it. The word “diberi” is a
passive form of the verb “beri” which in Malay means to give,
to grant. [27]
Thus, based on these cultural meaning, it can be
concluded that the method of translation here is focused on the term of “pride”
through the use of “nama and
pangkat” and “loyalty” from the word “diberi”.
Table 2. Decree of Governor General for Karawang
District on 23rd January 1821[28]
The phrase “te erkennen van behoren” is translated into “mengetahui
akan menghurmati” (to acknowledge to respect”). The major
transformation in this translation is “menghormati” (to respect). The
translator appeared to communicate with the readers (especially to the people
in Karawang as the audience of his translation) to pay respect to the appointee
because he was the representative of the government. He used the word
“menghurmati” which means “to pay respect to, or to do honor”, in order to point out the objective of this decree,
namely to legitimize the appointee’s position and to give order to the
audiences in Karawang to accept this figure to be their leader. In the Dutch
text, the author did not have to put the word “to respect” because there was no
obligation for the Dutch to give honor to the appointee. They needed the decree
only for the acknowledgement that they had appointed a head of district to be
their partner. The cultural term of “obedience” for the audience in the use of “menghurmati” is clearly seen in this context.
Overall, based on the choice of the words and phrases
that were employed, the translator succeeded in transferring the information
and message that was carried by the source text (Dutch text) to the Malay text.
The translator exploited the cultural term of “loyalty”, “pride” and
“obedience” in Malay perfectly. The translator did not only translate the words
written in texts given but he acted as a bridge to the readers and added the
cultural sense in his translation so that the
audience could understand the meaning and message that was going to be
delivered. It is contrary to what Schleirmacher (1813) argued that in
translating the texts, the translators only
translated the words written in texts given from the
language in the source text to the target language in the translation text
without considering the cultural term of the
source and target language.
VII. Translation and Colonial Power
In performing and organizing the tasks for period 1820-1825,
the Inlandsche Zaken first
tried to overcome the main obstacle they faced at
that time, it was the differences
of local language vernaculars
between one certain area and others. They tried to conduct linguistic unification of the existing local
vernaculars especially in the translation of formal documents such as Decrees,
and instructions. Besides that, they tried to standardize the Malay language through
dictionaries, grammar books, and a corpus of texts which represented the local
vernaculars. These manuals and standards held an important role in Malay translations. However, the choice of using hoge
Malay by the Inlandsche Zaken
showed a fact that the government did not want to completely close to the local
rulers. They created the distance through the “hoge
Malay” to show that their
position was created above
the local rulers.
Based
on the two
samples of the translation, there are some
differences on the method of translation that had been presented in the texts.
In the first translation, we can see that the translator tried to change the
structure of the text in order to explain the meaning which was intended to be delivered in the source text. However,
the result of the translation did not have any cultural sense. It was
true that the audiences needed to know the position of the appointee, but, what should they
do after they knew it? Moreover, the translator failed to employ the word “jadi” for the word
“benoemd aangsteld” that made the text unclear and meaningless. In this translation, we can
see clearly the position of the audiences (the people of Karawang), that
according to the translator, they had an obligation to acknowledge the position
of the appointee. Due to the mistranslation, the appointee’s position was not stated clearly in the translation.
In the second translation, the translator did not change the structure
of the sentence in the translation text. However, the translation text still had similar essence to the source text. The flow of information from the source text ran well
in the translation text because there was additional word such as “diberi” (is given) “nama” (name) and “pangkat”
(rank, position) which was inserted in the translation text. The choice of words in this
text was appropriate and relate to the context refer to the Dutch
text, but at
the same time they represented the Malay
context. In this choice of words, the translator had translated the text well
and succeeded in delivering the information to the readers.
In the context of power, the
Inlandsche Zaken highlighted the identity of power and legitimacy on the
appointee in the translation text. The appointee was legitimized to be the head
of the local societies in Karawang through the Decree (translation text). This
legitimacy of social status, ranks and dignity played an important role among the local noblemen in Netherlands East Indie. They
liked being honored as a head of community, as a noble who gained respect from
his subordinates and all sorts of similar things. The translator really paid
attention on this cultural aspect and put this point in the translation
text.
The word “diberi” here means “is given”. It symbolizes the power of the
Dutch colonial government to the audiences. The appointee “is given” a “name
and position” by the government. So, besides legitimizing the power of the
appointee, the government also reminding him and his subordinates (as the audiences) that the
position was a “gift” from the government. Since they
were the subordinate of the government,
so they had to
obey everything what would be ordered by the government.
From these two samples, it is obvious that the method of translation had
changed after the Inlandsche Zaken
was founded. The translator employed cultural point of view not only to make
his translation more meaningful, but also to exert the colonial power firmly. The
translation done by the Inlandsche Zaken
was more than what Schleirmacher (1813) argued that in translating the texts,
the translators only
translated the words from the language in the source
text to the target language in the translation text.
The translator of Inlandsche
Zaken in period of 1820-1825 began not only to change the language but also
change the culture in their translation.
Sources
1.
Primary Sources
ANRI, Jakarta, Inlandsche Zaken archives
Roorda van Eysinga, P.P., Handboek
den Land en Volkenkunde, Geschiedtaal, Aardrijks, Staatkunde van Nederlands
Indie, Amsterdam: L. Va. Bakkens, 1842
Roorda, van Eysinga, P.P. Algemeen Nederduitsch-Maleisch Woordenboek
in de Hof, Volks en Lage Taal, met Aanduiding der Woorden ,welke uit Oostersche
en Westersche Talen Ontleend Zijn, Amsterdam: Te ‘S Gravenhage, 1855
- Secondary Sources
Buden, Boris & Stefan Nowotny. “Cultural Translation: An Introduction to the
Problem and Responses in Translation Studies”, in Translation Studies
Journal, London: Routledge, vol. 2, no. 2, 2009
Fasseur. C, De Indologen Ambtenaren voor de Oost
1825-1950, Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, 1993
Chambert, Henri-Loir (ed), Sadur: Sejarah
Terjemahan di Indonesia dan Malaysia, Jakarta: KPG-Kepustakaan Populer
Gramedia, 2009
Encyclopedia Britannica, Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje http://www.britannica.com/biography/Christiaan-Snouck-Hurgronje
Groeneboer, Kees, Gateway to the West: The Dutch Language in Colonial
Indonesia 1600-1950, A History of Language Policy, Amsterdam: Amsterdam
University Press, 1998
Historiche Nota over Het Vraagstuk van de Opleiding en Benoembaarheid
voor Den Administratieven Dienst in Nederlandsch Indie, Batavia: Landsdrukkerij, 1900
Kemp, P.H. van der, Uit den tijd van C.P.J. Elout’s toewijding aan de
Maleische taal, BKI, 1914
Kumar, Ann, “Book Review on Politik Islam Hindia Belanda: Het Kantoor
voor Inlandsche Zaken, By Aqib Suminto, Jakarta: LP3ES, 1985”, in Journal of
Southeast Asian Studies XXI, I, 1990
Maier,
H.M.J., “From Heteroglossia to Polyglossia: The Creation of
Malay and Dutch in the Indies”. Indonesia. no. 56, Oct. 1993
Massier, AB. “Terjemahan Hukum Kolonial ke Dalam Bahasa Melayu dan
Bahasa Indonesia: Satu Pengantar”, in Sadur: Sejarah Terjemahan di Indonesia
dan Malaysia, Henri Chambert-Loir (ed), Jakarta: KPG-Kepustakaan popular
Gramedia, 2009
Siegel, James, T., Fetish, Recognition, Revolution, New Jersey: Princeton
University Press 1997
Wilkinson, R.J. Manuskrip Klasik: Kamus Jawi Melayu Inggris (A
Classic Jawi-Malay-English Dictionary)¸ Melaka: Baharudin Joha, 1903
[1]H.M.J. Maier. “From Heteroglossia to
Polyglossia: The Creation of Malay and Dutch in the Indies”. Indonesia.
no. 56, Oct. 1993 :44.
[2] P.H. van der Kemp. Uit
den Tijd van C.P.J. Elout’s toewijding aan de Maleische taal. (BKI: LXIX,
1914) p. 141. 1914. Quoted by Bernard Vlekke,H.M Nusantara A History of East Indian
Archipelago, (Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1945): 258.
[3] Cess Fasseur, De Indologen Ambtenaren voor de Oost 1825-1950,
(Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, 1993) :30.
[4] Kees Groeneboer. Gateway
to the West: The Dutch Language in Colonial Indonesia 1600-1950, A History of
Language Policy, (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1998): 72-73.
[5] Historiche Nota over Het Vraagstuk van de Opleiding en
Benoembaarheid voor Den Administratieven Dienst in Nederlandsch Indie, Batavia: Landsdrukkerij, 1900 in Kees Groeneboer. Gateway to the West: The Dutch
Language in Colonial Indonesia 1600-1950, A History of Language Policy
[6] AB,
Massier. “Terjemahan Hukum Kolonial ke Dalam Bahasa Melayu dan Bahasa
Indonesia: Satu Pengantar”in Sadur: Sejarah Terjemahan di Indonesia dan
Malaysia, Henri Chambert-Loir (ed) (Jakarta: KPG-Kepustakaan popular
Gramedia, 2009) p. 157.
[7] Benny Hoed. Penerjemahan
dan Kebudayaan (Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya, 2006) quoted by Henry Chambert-Loir.
“Pendahuluan”in Henry Chambert-Loir (ed) Sadur: Sejarah Terjemahan di
Indonesia and Malaysia. (Jakarta:
Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia, 2009): 10.
[8] Henry, Chambert-Loir,
“Pendahuluan”, in Henry Chambert-Loir (ed) Sadur: Sejarah Terjemahan di
Indonesia and Malaysia, (Jakarta: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia, 2009):10.
[10] Boris, Buden & Stefan, Nowotny. “Cultural
Translation: An Introduction to the Problem and Responses in Translation
Studies” in Translation Studies Journal, vol. 2, no. 2, 2009: 196.
[11] James, T. Siegel. Fetish,
Recognition, Revolution (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1997):
14-37. In this book the author defined some types of translations which had
been made during the Dutch colonial period in the 19th-20th
Century in the Netherlands East Indies.
[12] Eric Cheyfitz E. The Poetics
of Imperialism: Translation and Colonization from The Tempest to Tarzan
(New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991): 104 quoted by Susan
Bassnet and Haris Trivedi, 1999,
“Introduction: Of Colonie, Cannibals ad Vernaculars in Post-Colonial”in Susan
Bassnet and Haris Trivedi (eds), Translation Theory and Practice (London:
Routledge, 1999) : 3
[13] Busthanul Arifin.
“Pokok-Pokok Ceramah dalam Simposium tentang Bahasa dan Hukum”. di Simposium
Bahasa dan Hukum, in Simposium Bahasa dan Hukum: diselenggarakan Dalam
Rangka Kerjasama BPHN dan FI USU 25-27 Nopember 1976. (Jakarta: Binacipta,
1976): 77-86 quoted by AB. Massier. “Terjemahan Hukum Kolonial ke Dalam Bahasa
Melayu dan Bahasa Indonesia: Satu Pengantar” (2009) in chamber-loir. Sadur
(2009): 569.
[14] Ann Kumar, “Book Review
on Politik Islam Hindia Belanda: Het Kantoor voor Inlandsche Zaken, By
Aqib Suminto, Jakarta: LP3ES, 1985”, in Journal of Southeast Asian Studies XXI,
I (1990): 178-180.
[15] Encyclopedia Britannica, Christiaan
Snouck Hurgronje, taken from http://www.britannica.com/biography/Christiaan-Snouck-Hurgronje,
accessed on 21 April 2016.
[18] Roorda van Eysinga. Handboek
den Land en Volkenkunde, Geschiedtaal, Aardrijks, Staatkunde van Nederlands
Indie (1842): 655.
[19] Roorda van Eysinga. Handboek
den Land en Volkenkunde, Geschiedtaal, Aardrijks, Staatkunde van Nederlands
Indie (1842): 654.
[20] P.P. Roorda van
Eysinga. Algemeen
Nederduitsch-Maleisch Woordenboek in de Hof, Volks en Lage Taal, met Aanduiding
der Woorden ,welke uit Oostersche en Westersche Talen Ontleend Zijn, (Te ‘S
Gravenhage, 1855): xx.
[23] R.J. Wilkinson. Manuskrip Klasik: Kamus Jawi Melayu
Inggris (A Classic Jawi-Malay-English Dictionary) (Melaka: BaharudinJoha,
1903): 213.
[25] ANRI, Jakarta, Inlandsche
Zaken archives, no. 119. 17, dated on 23st of January, 1821. The
source text is Dutch and it is translated from Dutch to Malay by using Jawi
script. The Decree is for the appointment of a local ruler in Karawang. From
this document, there was a change of script from Javanese script (in September
1820) to Jawi (Malay) script (in January 1821).
[28] Arsip Nasional Republik
Indonesia (ANRI) Jakarta, 23 January 1821, Inlandsche Zaken archives collection
no. 119. 15-16.
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar