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Time future contained in time past: archival science in the 21st century

Eric KETELAAR

Time present and time past
Are both perhaps present in time future,
And time future contained in time past.
If all time is eternally present
All time is unredeemable.
What might have been is an abstraction
Remaining a perpetual possibility
Only in a world of speculation.
What might have been and what has been
Point to one end, which is always present.
Footfalls echo in the memory
Down the passage which we did not take
Towards the door we never opened
Into the rose-garden. My words echo
Thus, in your mind.

………….

Time past and time future
Allow but a little consciousness.
To be conscious is not to be in time
But only in time can the moment in the rose-garden,
The moment in the arbour where the rain beat,
The moment in the draughty church at smokefall
Be remembered; involved with past and future.
Only through time time is conquered.

From Burnt Norton (1936) by Thomas Stearns ELIOT (1888-1965)

“I can speak Dutch!” These were the first words spoken on 8 July 1853 at the encounter of the Japanese and commodore Perry, an American. “I can speak Dutch!” yelled a Dutch interpreter from the Japanese government, Horitatsu Nosuke, from a small boat to the deck of Perry’s flagship, the Susquehanna. On hearing this, Perry sought the help of his own Dutch interpreter Portman. Thus the first talks between the U.S. and Japan were carried out in Dutch.[i] The following year, in 1854, treaty negotiations between Hayashi Daigaku-no-kami and Commodore Perry were carried from Japanese to Dutch, then from Dutch to English, and vice versa. During the seclusion policy period of Sakoku, only Dutch and Chinese people were allowed into Japan for trading. That is the reason why there were interpreters in Nagasaki, translating from and into these two languages. One of them, the interpreter Motoki Shozaemon, who actually translated from and into Dutch, made the first English-Japanese dictionary, a basic one containing 6,000 words, in 1814.

Fortunately, today, Japanese interpreters have a much richer vocabulary than 150 years ago. This facilitates communication. Nevertheless, even today translating from one language into another, even within the same scholarly domain, may cause difficulties.

If we think of both the term and the concept ‘archival science’, we already have a problem. The name of your society Nihon Ahkaibuzu Gaku Kai is rendered in English as Japan Society for Archival Science. However, for most North American and Australian archivists, the term ‘archival science’ is so foreign, that it has no place in their glossaries. They will call it: archival theory or archives studies. For many archivists on the European continent and in Latin America, on the other hand, the term archival science is synonymous with archivistica,  archivistique, archiviologia, archivology and they do not hesitate to call their endeavour: archival science (Cook 2001,12). My question is: do you understand the words as I do? Is your archival science also mine? Even among Japanese colleagues there appear to be different notions of Ahkaibuzu Gaku and Monjo Kan Gaku and Kiroku-Shiryo Gaku. Do we understand each other, or rather: what do we understand by ‘archival science’ in your language and in mine?

Allow me to give you my definition: archival science studies the characteristics of records in their social and cultural contexts and how they are created, used, selected and transferred through time. Archival science asks “why”, where archival administration in my opinion asks “what” and “how”. Science examines received notions for their pertinence and relevance, it is continuously speculating, experimenting, inventing, changing, and improving (Ketelaar 2000). Or, to paraphrase Thomas Eliot: archival science is not afraid of

… an abstraction
Remaining a perpetual possibility
Only in a world of speculation.

Time future is contained in time past . That is why, first of all, I want to outline the development of the archival profession or archival discipline. That will lead to a reflection about what society now and in the future will expect of the archivist. I will talk in more detail about the role of modern information and communication technologies, ICT. Then I will address archival science and the implications for archival science of a society well on its way to Being Digital. I shall distinguish two developments which I define as digitization and memorialization. The first leads to a paradigm shift in archival science, while the widespread societal interest in memorialization forms new challenges for archival science. After having mentioned the connection between private and public memories, I will wind up by saying something about the globalization of archival science.

1.

The Dutch Manual for the Arrangement and Description of Archives by Muller, Feith and Fruin  is mostly regarded as a starting point of modern archival science (Muller, Feith and Fruin 2003).  Theodore Schellenberg wrote “From the point of view of its worldwide contribution to archival science the most important manual written on archival administration is probably that of a trio of Dutch archivists…” (Schellenberg 1956, 12). Note that Schellenberg used the terms archival science and archival administration, when referring to the Dutch manual. Archival administration, according to the dictionary of the International Council on Archives, is “the theoretical and practical study of politics, procedures and problems relating to archival functions” (Walne 1988). Theoretical and practical. According to the Canadian archivistics scholar Terry Cook the Dutch Manual owes its importance to the codification of the European archival theory and its enunciation of a methodology for treating archives (Cook 1997, 22). I want to detract somewhat from the praise for the three Dutchmen. The Manual did not offer an archivistics theory, but a methodology, developed according to a phenomenological approach that is scholarly justified. The methodology was formulated in 100 rules, which, according to Muller, Feith en Fruin, might be deviated from if well-motivated, the motivation to be subjected to a discussion by colleagues. In practice, however, the rules were seen as inviolable dogmas and what was meant to be an instrument became

a bible for archivists; the methodology became a doctrine. The Manual itself writes in § 24 about “the requirements of the new archival doctrine”. In the French edition of 1910 – which included among its users the famous British archivist Hilary Jenkinson – this was translated as: “the requirements of the new archival science”.  But a doctrine is not science. A doctrine does not permit another vision, it is fundamentalist, not critical, it stimulates exegesis, but it doesn’t encourage free independent research. Yet the doctrine has a role in the process of the professionalization of the archivist. That role the Dutch Manual has certainly had, not only in the Netherlands, but also in many other places around the world, as is shown by the many translations, even until today. Codification, normalization and regulation of the archival practice are important for the professionalization of archivists, literally when they are trained or ‘disciplined’, the archival discipline being a branch of learning (Thomassen 1999a). The disciplining or professionalization has more aspects: a specific professional language, a specific training, a specific ethical code and many more elements.

As a result of changes in society the discipline changes as well. Archivists don’t practise their profession for the sake of it, but to fulfil their mission in society. Archives are formed, used, managed, passed down and, yes, destroyed, because individuals, organizations and society judge this to be useful and necessary. Thus, again and again society challenges the archival discipline – every time and in every place in a different way. 

Exactly 200 years ago, in 1804, the German Josef Anton Oegg [1762-1819] published his Ideas of a Theory of Archival Science (Oegg 1804). From the subtitle of his book it is clear that the book has a practical focus: to guide the practical establishment and processing of archives and records. It was empirical archival knowledge, described systematically (this is what Oegg meant by: scientific). The archivist in the Europe of the ancien régime did practical work and he was responsible for one administration. The knowledge he needed was administrative legal knowledge. Practical manuals like the one by Oegg provided this for archival arrangement. In those days the scientific involvement in archives was limited to diplomatics: scholarship to distinguish between real and false documents (Delmas 2001). After the French Revolution many of the old archives lost their function as legal proof: they became historical objects that were no longer in use or managed by the archive- forming administration, but by special archives: institutions, outside the archive-forming administration, taking over the management of the older records of other government bodies, work that is carried out by specially appointed civil servants: archivists (Woelderink 1975). The large body of old archives then becomes a source for history writing. The archival fonds had to be arranged and described. This practical need leads to the development of descriptive archives administration. As the public administration grew in size and became more and more important during and immediately after WW I, the number of papers became massive. Archivists tried to get a hold on this by appraisal and selection, and by improving the methods of the formation of files, this also under the influence of Taylorian scientific management. The utilitarian aspect of archives again becomes part of the mission of the archivist. The extension of the sphere of work of the archivist necessitates extension of archival knowledge and in some countries even the development of a new discipline: records management. The archivistic domain is gradually extending and contains all stages of the document cycle. Archival knowledge is extending accordingly.

New challenges announced themselves from the seventies of the last century: the educational task of the archivist, the increased care for material preservation, audiovisual archives. With the information society of the nineties electronic archives come in sight, while the “the paperless search room” (at the International Congress of Archives in Paris, 1988, still a dream) is taking shape on the Internet (Ketelaar 1989).

2.

Time present and time past
Are both perhaps present in time future,
And time future contained in time past.
……

Only through time time is conquered.

What does society expect from the archivist today?[ii] From opinion polls and other sources we know that, at least in Europe, members of the general public value archives highly, associating archives with Memory and History (Elgey, Rémond and Wieviorka 2002). Paradoxically, for most people this positive perception is not based on first-hand experience by visiting an archival institution. The public considers archives to be part of the collective memory and as a source to learn about the past. Important as these functions of archives are, they constitute only part of the mission of the archivist. The archivist in the 21st century has to ensure not only that records are created and managed as evidence to serve accountability and memory, but also that archives are preserved, so that society can be confident of the future (Ketelaar 2002b).

Archiving - all the activities from creation and management to the use of records and archives - means: transmitting authentic evidence of human activity and experience through time (Ketelaar 2002a). Transmission of evidence through time. Archives, libraries, museums are all in the “memory business”, ensuring “time future contained in time past”.  But what distinguishes archives from all other memory institutions is that the individual, organizational and collective memories they preserve are not defined in terms of a cultural heritage: they are situated on the evidential axis of the records continuum. Records embody the nexus between evidence, accountability, and memory.

Without evidence no accountability and no memory. Accountability and memory reside in records, because records are evidence: not only evidence of transactions, not only evidence in the legal sense, they are also evidence of some historic fact that is either part of the transaction itself or that may be traced via the transaction or that is otherwise embodied in the record or in the contexts of its archivalization and archiving (Ketelaar 1999). Records serve as evidence of a transaction and records serve as evidence in an external corporate or individual memory. Both are evidence, with one side supporting accountability, the other memory.

Changing societal expectations of the mission of the archivist in the 21^st century are activated by the increasing irrelevance of constraints of place, time, and medium, made possible by modern information and communication technologies. They offer new possibilities and pose new challenges. The archivist can not fulfil his mission without using modern information and communication technologies. This, however, does not entail changing the archivist into an ICT-specialist. The archivist has to know how to use ICT but, more importantly, he or she has to understand the strategic implications for the archival discipline of modern technologies and their impact on social and cultural practices. Out of the host of writers about the societal impact of ICT, I name but one: Nicolas Negroponte, whose book Being Digital dates from 1995, but is still worth reading. Negroponte stresses that in the modern information society we are no longer primarily in the business of providing atoms, but of providing bits. For archivists and archival institutions Being Digital means more than preserving and providing digital documents: it presents a techno-cultural challenge to connect archives with people (Ketelaar 2003). Archival institutions will be redesigned as a public sphere where individual, organizational and collective memories and stories are experienced, exchanged, and enriched. To achieve this, a goal-oriented entrepreneurial shift to new products and services is necessary. Strategies should not be restricted to merely digitizing what archives-as-a-place already do.

3.

Archives are changing in nature and status with the evolution of society, and so does archival science (Delmas 2001). And just as archival knowledge developed as the mission of the archivist changed, archival science went through different stages of development. Hermann Rumschöttel gave a summary of these developments (Rumschöttel 2001). He treats the course of the political and legal orientation in connection with the needs of the State in the 17^th and 18^th centuries. Then he describes the stage when archival science was an auxiliary discipline of History during the 19^th century and the first half of the 20^th century and he concludes by reporting on functional archival science which developed in the 90s. This development is still continuing. What are the implications for archival science of a society on its way to being Being Digital. I will distinguish two developments that I define as digitization and memorialization.

4.

Digitization can be seen as digital reproduction of analogue information, examples being a paper record or an analogue video. But digitization also contains “digital-born” records. How do we transmit these digital records - authentic evidence of human activity and experience - through time?

When consulting a record its form, content and structure have to be similar to those at

the time of receiving the record or at the time the record was made during a specific work process. Structure is the logical connection between the elements of a document (or of an archive). Form is the outward appearance showing both the structure and the lay-out of the document. In paper records content, structure and form are physically present in the document and its physical arrangement. Digital records, however, don’t have their content, structure and form in or on a physical medium, but in a digital representation, that serves as a generator for various ways in which the document is made visible (Simons 2002). Moreover, a digital document has another circumscription than a physical document: it contains links to other documents, it is variable and changeable (that is the reason why printing digital documents isn’t the right strategy for preservation: a print-out lacks the characteristic functionality of the digital document). An original does no longer exist because, intrinsically, each recording or representation (on a medium, a screen or as a print-out) is a representation or reproduction made by the operating system and the application software. As David Levy writes: digital materials are made up of both the digital representation and the perceptible forms produced from it. The digital representation is a sort of “printing mould” that enables endless printing. The perceptible form of a digital document ”is always being manufactured just-in-time, on the spot” (Levy 2001, 152). In other words “ensuring the technical and intellectual survival of authentic records through time”, as ISO standard 15489 requires, is enabling the reconstruction of the content, form and structure of a record through time.

The ‘disappearance of the original’ in a digital age makes for a major paradigm shift in archival science. Whenever science is no longer able to explain phenomena with established and familiar concepts we talk about a paradigm shift in the sense of Thomas Kuhn. Just as Ptolemaic astronomy underwent the Copernican turn, just as the

Newtonian paradigm took the place of Aristotelian dynamics, archival science cannot manage any longer with the concepts that were applicable in the world of paper and parchment. Its object is no longer a tangible document or file in a logical and partly physical context that can be arranged and described, as could be done with the help of

the Dutch Manual. As I said earlier on, a digital document is not a thing in itself. It not only depends on software and hardware, it also depends on the links it has outside its boundaries. The record is a "mediated and ever-changing construction," as Terry Cook writes (Cook 2001, 10). It is open yet enclosed, it is ‘membranic’, the membrane allowing the infusing and exhaling of what I have called ‘tacit narratives’ which are embedded in each and every activation of the record (Ketelaar 2001).

Digitization challenges archival science to develop a new paradigm, meaning new concepts, theories, and methods (Thomassen 1999b). They needn’t be totally new, as, indeed “time future is contained in time past”. As Kuhn indicated, new paradigms

incorporate much of the vocabulary and apparatus, both conceptual and manipulative, that the traditional paradigm had previously employed. But they seldom employ these borrow elements in quite the traditional way. Within the new paradigm, old terms, concepts and experiments fall into new relationships one with the other (Kuhn 1996, 149).

Thus, archival science in the 21^st century will study phenomena which look like traditional facts and events, even carry traditional labels, but which are conceptually totally different. An ‘original’ is no original, a ‘record’ is not a record, ‘preservation’, ‘access’, and ‘use’ are no preservation, access, and use as we used to know them. In this sense you may understand my question, at the beginning: is your archival science also mine?

5.

 But only in time can the moment in the rose-garden,
…

Be remembered; involved with past and future.
Only through time time is conquered.

There is another reason why archival science cannot be continued in the usual way. This is what I call the memoralization of society.

We are living in an archiving society. “Never before has so much been recorded, collected; and never before has remembering been so compulsive” (Gillis 1994, 14). Society as a whole, according to Pierre Nora, has acquired the religion of preservation and archivalization (Nora 1996, 8,11). I would call this memorialization, because it encompasses more than collecting archives in the strict sense (Ketelaar 2002a (Ketelaar, 2003 #364; 2003). People collect documents, artefacts, oral history, old photographs, they visit people and places to re-connect with their roots. In doing so, they are not only engaged in a personal hobby. The living histories of individuals and families form part of a larger framework, of local, regional, and national history, but also of the history and identity of political, religious and other social groups.

Andreas Huyssen disapproves of the current “obsessive self-musealization”, and the “successful marketing of memory by the Western culture industry” (Huyssen 1995 {Huyssen, 2003 #314; 2000, 25). I do not share his pessimism, but rather believe that memoralization is an expression of society’s postmodern temperament. As Huyssen himself proposes:

What needs to be captured and theorized today is precisely the ways in which museum and exhibition culture in the broadest sense provides a terrain that can offer multiple narratives of meaning at a time when the metanarratives of modernity … have lost their persuasiveness, when more people are eager to hear and see other stories, to hear and see the stories of others, when identities are shaped in multiply layered and never-ceasing negotiations between self and other, rather than being fixed and taken for granted in the framework of family and faith, race and nation (Huyssen 1995, 34).

This view corresponds with the outcome of experiments in distributed memories, conducted at Carnegie Mellon University (Werkhoven 2003). The individual experience of different people from different locations can be synthesized into a collective experience. In that way one’s memory can use the experience of other people. Recollection will no longer be restricted to one’s own experience. Let me give you an example. A colleague asked me to recommend a book on collective memory. I knew the book I wanted to advise. I could “see” its color and its size in my mind. I even knew the name of the author, but could not recollect the title. Therefore I used an interface: amazon.com. By entering the author’s name, the website yielded the title and a picture of the book, which I could then recommend. Who “remembered” the book? Neither I myself, nor amazon.com could  remember in isolation: the two together were involved in a system of distributed memory.   

6.

Might it be possible that these ideas about synthesizing memories constitute a new challenge to archival science? Indeed, I believe archival science might build on the widespread societal interest in memorialization and try to find out why and how individual memories can be connected with the memories of archival institutions, museums and libraries. Such a connection is necessary, because for private memories to become archives, they have to be, in Derrida’s words, consigned in some external location, some space outside the self: “It belongs to the concept of the archive that it be public, precisely because it is located. You cannot keep an archive inside yourself – this is not archive” (Van Zyl and Harris 2001). Archival science is challenged to attain “not only a more refined sense of what memory means in different contexts, but also a sensitivity to the differences between individual and social memory” (Hedstrom 2002, 31-32).

The records continuum model, developed by the Australian archival science scholars Frank Upward and Sue McKemmish, has four dimensions: in the first dimension records are created, then captured, thirdly organized. The fourth dimension of recordkeeping is:  pluralizing: archives are brought “into an encompassing framework in order to provide a collective social, historical and cultural memory of the institutionalized social purposes and roles of individuals and corporate bodies” (McKemmish 1997, 203). In that dimension archival science is concerned with “social and cultural mandates for essential evidence to function as collective memory”. As Terry Cook said

societal values and community expectations of dimension four do have, or should have a major impact on shaping the three inner dimensions (Cook 2000).

At the pluralizing dimension we are “essentially on the ‘outside’ looking in” (McKemmish 1997, 203) to see how records and archives are formed as the memory of an organization or as the individual’s memory of business or social functions (the third dimension). Deeper still, we see the creation of authentic recorded evidence (Ketelaar 2002b;, 2003). The fourth dimension echoes back through the third and second towards the first dimension. This model is conceptually ideal, but we do not as yet have found out how to test and implement the model in a holistic way, embracing all dimensions. Archival science, therefore, is challenged to study the records continuum within the broader context of the memorialization of society. We have to look up from the record and through the record, going beyond the first, second and third dimensions of the records continuum, to new perspectives, finally seeing with the archive (Ketelaar 2001). In, what I call, “social and cultural archivistics”  we have to try

to understand the role of records and documents in human affairs, we must try to recover the larger meanings of records and record-making (O'Toole 2002).

Looking at a “community of records” means looking at the community “both as a record-creating entity and as a memory frame that contextualizes the records it creates” (Bastian 2003, 3-4). A community of records may be imagined

as the aggregate of records in all forms generated by multiple layers of actions and interactions between and among the people and institutions within a community (Bastian 2003, 5).

Derrida saw all meaning as produced by a dual process of difference and deferral. Meaning is never fully present but is constructed through the interplay of presence and absence, of the visible and the invisible. The invisible is located in the past, and also in the hidden spaces of the archives, the library and the museum, and in the invisible discourse produced by creators and ‘archivers’. But we also have to take the visitor or user into account, whose live gaze, as Andreas Huyssen remarks, endows the object with its aura (Huyssen 1995, 31; Engel 1999, 150-151).

7.

Footfalls echo in the memory
Down the passage which we did not take
Towards the door we never opened
Into the rose-garden. My words echo
Thus, in your mind.

Archival science has to be a comparative science, taking into account the different ways people make sense. Your archival science does not need to be the same as my archival science (Ketelaar 1997).

As we all know, globalization has a great impact on society. The archival discipline is globalizing too. Today, time and place can hardly be considered objections. Digital records know no physical boundaries, no distances. In the archival discipline standardization is steadily increasing world-wide. That is not to say that the archival discipline is up against the same challenges in each country of the world. Neither does it mean that solutions that hold good in one country can always be successfully imported in other countries.

According to Schellenberg there is “no final or ultimate definition of the term ‘archives’ that must be accepted without change and in preference to all others. The definition may be modified in each country to fit its particular needs” (Schellenberg 1956, 15) Because of this, the recent ISO standard 15489 refrains from a definition of ‘archive’. Every society determines the archival mission and the archival discipline in its own way and adheres, therefore, to its own concept of ‘archive’.

The same also holds good for archival science. When we presented the international journal Archival Science three years ago Peter Horsman, Theo Thomassen and I wrote in the first issue

it acknowledges the impact of different cultures on archival theory, methodology and practice, by taking into account different traditions in various parts of the world, and by promoting the exchange and comparison of concepts, views and attitudes in those traditions.

Archival science can only flourish by careful study and by exchange and comparison of concepts, views and attitudes in different traditions (Ketelaar 1997). I sincerely hope that your society Nihon Ahkaibuzu Gaku Kai will contribute to that study and to that exchange, within Japan and with fellow scholars of archival science all over the world. No longer is there   Sakoku, nor have only the Dutch the privilege of communicating with Japan. Archival science knows no boundaries.

Bastian, Jeannette (2003), Owning Memory. How a Caribbean Community Lost its Archives and Found Its History. publisher and publishing place(if known).

Cook, Terry (1997), "What is past is prologue: a history of archival ideas since 1898, and the future paradigm shift", Archivaria, no. 43, pp  -   .

--- (2000), "Beyond the Screen: The Records Continuum and Archival Cultural Heritage", in: L. Burrow (ed.), Beyond the Screen: Capturing Corporate and Social Memory. ASA Conference 2000, Australian Society of Archivists, s.l. pp  -   .

--- (2001), "Archival science and postmodernism: new formulations for old concepts", Archival Science, vol. 1, 3-24.

Delmas, Bruno (2001), "Archival science facing the information society", Archival  Science, vol. 1, 25-37.

Elgey, Georgette, René Rémond and Annette Wieviorka (2002). Les Français et leurs archives : actes du colloque tenu le 5 novembre 2001 au Conseil économique et social, Palais d'Iéna, Fayard, Paris.

Engel, Susan (1999), Context is everything: the nature of memory, W.H. Freedman and Company, New York.

Gillis, John (ed.) (1994), Commemorations. The politics of national identity, Princeton University Press, Princeton.

Hedstrom, Margaret (2002), "Archives, Memory, and Interfaces with the Past", Archival  Science, vol. 2, 21-43.

Huyssen, Andreas (1995), Twilight memories: marking time in a culture of amnesia, Routledge, New York.

--- (2000), "Present pasts: media, politics, amnesia", Public culture, vol. or no. ? 12, pp  -   .

Ketelaar, Eric (1989), "Exploitation of new archival materials", Archivum, vol. 35, 189-199.

--- (1997), "The Difference Best Postponed? Cultures and comparative archival science", Archivaria, no. 44, 142-148 (http://cf.hum.uva.nl/bai/home/eketelaar/difference.doc).

--- (1999), "Archivalisation and archiving", Archives and Manuscripts, vol. 27, 54-61.

--- (2000), "Archivistics Research Saving the Profession", American Archivist , vol. 63, 329-330.

Ketelaar, Eric (2001a), "Tacit Narratives: The Meanings of Archives", Archival Science, vol. 1, 143-155.

Ketelaar, Eric (2001b), "Tacit Narratives: The Meanings of Archives", Archival  Science, vol.1, 143-155. (same as above)

--- (2002a), "The Archive as a Time Machine", Proceedings of the DLM-Forum 2002: @ccess and Preservation of Electronic Information: Best Practices and Solutions, Barcelona, 6-8 May 2002, INSAR European Archives News (Supplement VII), 576-581 (http://cf.hum.uva.nl/bai/home/eketelaar/Timemachine.doc).

--- (2002b), "Empowering Archives: What Society Expects of Archivists", in: S. Lloyd (ed.), Past Caring? What does Society Expect of Archivists? Proceedings of the Australian Society of Archivists Conference. Sydney 13-17 August 2002, Australian Society of Archivists, Canberra, 11-27.

--- (2003), "Being Digital in People's Archives", Archives and Manuscripts, vol. 31, 8-22 (http://cf.hum.uva.nl/bai/home/eketelaar/Beingdigital.doc).

Kuhn, Thomas S. (1996), The structure of scientific revolutions, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London.

Levy, David M. (2001), Scrolling forward. Making sense of documents in the digital age, Arcade, New York.

McKemmish, Sue (1997), "Yesterday, today and tomorrow: a continuum of responsibility", (ed.), Naar een nieuw paradigma in de archivistiek. Jaarboek 1999 Stichting Archiefpublicaties ’s-Gravenhage, Stichting Archiefpublicaties, 195-210.

Muller, S., J.A.  Feith and R. Fruin (2003), Manual for the arrangement and description of archives, Society of American Archivists, Chicago.

Nora, Pierre (1996), "General Introduction: Between Memory and History." in: P. Nora (ed.), Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past [on the jacket: The Construction of the French Past], vol. I. Conflicts and Divisions, Columbia University Press, New York.

Oegg, Jos. Ant. (1804), Ideen einer Theorie der Archivwissenschaft. Zur Leitung der Praxis bey der Einrichtung und Bearbeitung der Archive und Registraturen, Carl Wilhelm Ettinger, Gotha.

O'Toole, James M. (2002), "Cortes's Notary: The Symbolic Power of Records", Archival  Science, vol. 2, 45-61.

Rumschöttel, Herman (2001), "The Development of Archival Science as a Scholarly Discipline", Archival  Science, vol. 1, 143-155.

Schellenberg, T. R. (1956), Modern archives : principles and techniques, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill.

Simons, Jan (2002), Interface en cyberspace. Inleiding in de nieuwe media, Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam.

Thomassen, Theo (1999a), "Archivists between Knowledge and Power. On the independence and autonomy of archival science and the archival profession", Arhivski Vjesnik, vol. or no. ? 42, 149-167 (http://www.archiefschool.nl/docs/thomarch.pdf).

--- (1999b), The Development of Archival Science and its European Dimension, in:.The Archivist and the Archival Science. Seminar for Anna Christina Ulfsparre... , Landsarkivet, Lund, 67-74 (http://www.archiefschool.nl/docs/thomdeve.pdf).

Van Zyl, Susan  and Verne Harris (eds.) (2001), Refiguring the Archive, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town.

Walne, Peter (1988), Dictionary of archival terminology : English and French, with equivalents in Dutch, German, Italian, Russian, and Spanish = Dictionnaire de terminologie archivistique, K.G. Saur, München ; New York.

Werkhoven, Peter (2003), Multimedia door een sleutelgat, Vossius Pers, Amsterdam.

Woelderink, B. (1975), De geschiedenis van het archiefwezen in Nederland in hoofdlijnen.Verslag en bijdragen rijks archiefschool 1972-1973 1973-1974 , Rijks archiefschool, Utrecht, 61-90.

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[i] http://www.japan-society.org/commodoreperry_p2.html

[ii] This paragraph contains some material from my contribution to Part 3 of the  New report on archives in the enlarged European Union (forthcoming).